Report summary

The report assesses digital ID and government digital services in Kenya and Zambia, noting significant strides in digitisation but also persistent gaps in enforcement, capacity, and inclusivity. While both governments have launched major initiatives, weak data protection, opaque practices, and infrastructural limits undermine trust and effectiveness. Marginalised groups, especially refugees, women, and rural populations, remain excluded due to systemic identity barriers and digital illiteracy. Civil society plays a vital role through advocacy, training, and accountability, while the private sector supports infrastructure but calls for clearer regulation and collaboration. The study recommends stronger legal safeguards, inclusive design, capacity-building, ethical data governance, interoperability, and multi-stakeholder cooperation to ensure that digital systems are secure, rights-based, and accessible.