Introduction

Kenya has recognised the delivery of government digital services as a critical mechanism for fostering interaction between the government and both citizens and non-citizens.¹ In its ongoing efforts to leverage Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), the Kenyan government has adopted many digital platforms to enhance public service delivery, improve administrative efficiency and promote inclusivity in governance.² These platforms serve as digital interfaces through which individuals can access government services, information and regulatory functions. Notable examples include the eCitizen portal, which offers access to thousands of services across various ministries and agencies;³ Huduma Kenya, a government initiative providing integrated public service delivery through both physical and digital means;⁴ and the Transport Integrated Management System (TIMS), which digitises motor vehicle registration and license processes.⁵

While Kenya has made commendable strides in rolling out digital platforms to facilitate public service delivery, the benefits of these innovations are not equally felt across the population.⁶ Significant disparities persist in access, connectivity, and digital literacy. Not all Kenyan citizens have reliable internet access or own internet-enabled devices—factors which are foundational to meaningful engagement with digital services.⁷

Setting the Context

Numerous researchers have explored the relationship between the digital divide and socioeconomic inequality, though findings across different countries vary. In some studies, particularly those focused on low- and middle-income nations, scholars have identified beneficial impacts of increased internet access.⁸ Whereas a survey conducted in China across 35 major cities found that broadband internet contributes to widening income disparities among the floating population—rural-to-urban migrants without official household registration—by increasing the earnings gap between high-skilled and low-skilled workers within this group.⁹ In another separate study, it was revealed that internet access had different development effects in Chinese prefectures; while some cities developed at a quick rate, others did not benefit to the same degree because of problems like poor infrastructure, lack of awareness of the internet and doubts about whether internet development policies were realistic.¹⁰

This blog explores the structural inequalities that underlie Kenya’s digital landscape and how, despite the proliferation of government digital platforms, such systems may be unequally accessed or utilised.¹¹ Research on the digital divide in Kenya consistently shows that populations residing in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs) face substantial barriers to digital inclusion, including limited ICT infrastructure, low connectivity, and weaker digital literacy skills.¹² These imbalances risk further entrenching socio-economic disparities if not deliberately addressed through inclusive digital policy and infrastructure development.

To demonstrate how government digital platforms can inadvertently exclude segments of the population, this blog will focus on two key factors: poverty, as a reflection of economic inequality, and the rural–urban divide, which is closely intertwined with poverty and limited access to digital infrastructure and devices. These two criteria are critical because they determine whether individuals are able to meaningfully engage with and benefit from government digital services.

Existing Inequalities

Poverty and the rural-urban divide are telling indicators of exclusion in the digital age. Individuals living in poverty often lack the financial means to purchase smartphones, computers, or maintain reliable internet access, which are basic requirements for using government digital platforms.¹³ Additionally, rural areas in Kenya continue to face chronic underinvestment in ICT infrastructure, including limited broadband coverage and unreliable electricity.¹⁴ These two criteria highlight how government digital platforms risk deepening existing socioeconomic inequalities.

Poverty

According to the 2022 Kenya Poverty Report, the counties with the highest overall poverty rates were Turkana, Mandera, Samburu, Garissa, Tana River, Marsabit and Wajir, while the lowest poverty rates were Nairobi City, Kiambu, Kirinyaga, Embu, Nyeri and Narok.¹⁵ This corresponds to the geographical digital divide investigated by Dalberg, which states that ‘more remote and less densely populated areas, including Turkana and Samburu counties, are lagging in internet usage below 40% usage rates.¹⁶

The correlation between high poverty rates and low internet usage in remote counties suggests a complex interplay of socioeconomic factors that exacerbate digital exclusion.¹⁷ Citizens residing in these areas face significant barriers to accessing digital technologies, burdened by elevated poverty levels.¹⁸ The financial incapacity to afford digital devices and inconsistent access to reliable internet services may disenfranchise these populations. Government digital services rely on the availability of internet connectivity and technological access. The digital divide excludes the poor from benefiting from the benefits of digital integration, further entrenching their marginalisation.¹⁹

Rural-Urban Divide

As highlighted in the preceding section, there is a significant divide in internet access between those who live in urban areas and those who live in rural areas. There are several reasons for this divide: poverty, illiteracy, and lack of digital infrastructure.²⁰ Statistics from the 2023/24 Kenya Housing Basic Report shows this divide between rural and urban areas in Kenya,²¹ At a national level 35% of the population accessed the internet three months before the survey. However, there is a stark contrast in internet penetration rates between urban (56.5%) and rural areas (25.0%).²² This divide is further highlighted when broken down by gender, with 37.8% of males and 32.2% of females accessing the internet nationally. In urban areas 58.4% for males and 54.8% for females have access to the internet compared to rural rates of 28.3% for males and 21.7% for females.²³

The disparity is most acute in counties such as Nairobi and Kiambu, which have the highest usage rates of 64.7% and 54.0% respectively, in contrast to West Pokot and Turkana, where usage rates are significantly lower at 9% and 12.7% respectively.²⁴ The data illustrate the uneven landscape of internet access across Kenya with urban residents enjoying higher connectivity than their rural counterparts.

The digital gap is further exacerbated when individuals without access to ICT devices and reliable internet, often in rural areas, are left behind, while their urban counterparts benefit from the opportunities presented by e-government platforms.²⁵ This imbalance undermines the inclusive adoption and effective implementation of e-government systems, particularly in regions where digital infrastructure remains underdeveloped.²⁶

Aware of the existing digital divide, the Communications Authority of Kenya is spending Kes 3.5 billion to invest on increased communications infrastructure in rural and remote areas. The investment is part of ‘phase four of the Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) project through the Universal Service Fund (USF) to give rural communities the quality cellular technology and connectivity they deserve’.²⁷

International Best Practices for Implementation of E-government and Service Delivery

Drawing on two OECD e-government studies, Egypt and Mexico have developed specific strategies to enhance public service delivery through ICT technologies.²⁸ Studies from both countries indicate that there is a positive impact from implementing e-government, such as improved efficiency, transparency and public trust.²⁹

A shared recommendation emerging from both Mexico and Egypt is the need to focus e-government strategies around users rather than merely digitising existing bureaucratic processes.³⁰ However, the report cautioned that efforts to enhance user satisfaction often competed with efforts to reduce administrative costs. Mexico was encouraged to develop multi-channel service delivery systems that include not just web-based services but also mobile platforms and in-person access points, to ensure inclusivity across populations with varying levels of digital access.

Addressing the digital divide was a serious concern for both Egypt and Mexico. Both countries recognised that socio-economic disparities, infrastructure gaps and limited digital literacy posed significant barriers to access. In response, Mexico invested in public internet access points, such as community digital centres focused in rural and low-income areas. Meanwhile, Egypt emphasised mobile-first solutions and ICT training as means of bridging access gaps. The initiatives show an understanding that digital inclusion is about connectivity, affordability, relevant content and user capabilities.

Effective monitoring and evaluation mechanisms were a best practice highlighted across both studies.³¹ In Mexico, evaluations were advised to go beyond conventional output indicators (e.g. number of services online) to measure more meaningful outcomes such as user satisfaction, efficiency gains, and impacts on organisational transformation.³² The OECD recommended that these evaluations be conducted regularly, made publicly available, and integrated into decision-making cycles. By adopting a comprehensive monitoring and evaluation framework, governments could ensure accountability and make iterative improvements based on empirical evidence.

For Africa to harness its demographic dividend, it must support the development and adoption of technologies that are affordable, context-appropriate, and capable of enhancing productivity across both formal enterprises and informal microenterprises. Strengthening digital infrastructure is therefore essential—not only to spur innovation and entrepreneurship, but also to expand access to dignified and sustainable employment opportunities for millions across the continent. Moreover, improved digital infrastructure will facilitate more inclusive access to government digital services, enabling citizens to engage more effectively with government platforms and essential public services.

Conclusion

To bridge the digital divide in Kenya, policy interventions should focus on ICT infrastructure, expanding broadband access in rural areas, and promoting digital literacy through structured training and awareness programmes.³³ Improving internet connectivity, especially in low-income and remote areas, is crucial for equitable participation in the digital economy. Kenya must therefore aim to bridge the existing inequalities impacting access to government digital services.